Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian

Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian

 

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Emperor, general, and Vespasian's right hand, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (better known as simply Titus) was remembered by the Romans as a leader to be celebrated and a deity to be worshiped. While he was not without fault--having committed numerous egregious transgressions--his life and achievements are undeniably impressive. He survived imperial turnover, lived through the great fire of Rome, presided over the empire as Vesuvius destroyed numerous cities and plague ravaged his homeland, and hosted Rome's vaunted 100-days of games.

 

This book draws on the scant historical sources, the archaeological record, and modern academic commentary to present the most comprehensive available account of Titus' life. Long neglected by historians, Titus' significant role in Roman history is presented here in the fullest detail. Hero or villain, there are few pivotal historical figures like Titus who straddled more momentous history and whose effects are still felt today.

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Marcus Terentius Varro - Roman Scholar and Writer

Marcus Terentius Varro - Roman Scholar and Writer

Marcus Terentius Varro was a Roman scholar and writer who lived during the late Roman Republic. He was born in 116 BC in the Roman town of Reate, which is now modern-day Rieti in Italy. Varro was a highly educated and well-respected member of Roman society, known for his vast knowledge in a multitude of subjects, including philosophy, theology, agriculture, language, and many others. He is credited with establishing the date of Rome's founding as 753 BCE. This date became widely accepted in Roman tradition and is often referenced as "ab urbe condita" (from the founding of the city).

Varro's intelligence was evident from a young age, as he quickly rose through the ranks of Roman society due to his keen intellect and insatiable thirst for knowledge. He studied under the tutelage of some of the greatest minds of his time, including the famous Stoic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon, who greatly influenced Varro's philosophical views. Varro was also a close friend of Cicero, one of the most prominent statesmen and orators of the Roman Republic, further solidifying his reputation as a man of great intelligence and learning.

An imagined portrait of an elderly Varro, engraving from André Thevet (From Wikipedia)

 

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One of Varro's most significant contributions to Roman scholarship was his work on agriculture. He wrote several treatises on the subject, including "De Re Rustica" (On Agriculture), which became a foundational text for Roman farmers and landowners. In this work, Varro demonstrated his deep understanding of agronomy, livestock management, and crop cultivation, providing practical advice for those involved in the agricultural industry.

In addition to his work on agriculture, Varro was also a prolific writer on a wide range of subjects. He wrote extensively on Roman history, language, religion, and philosophy, producing a vast body of work that covered nearly every aspect of Roman life and culture. His writings were highly influential and widely read during his lifetime, and they continue to be studied by scholars today for their insights into ancient Roman society.

Varro was a polymath in the truest sense of the word, excelling in multiple disciplines and mastering a wide array of subjects. His intellectual curiosity knew no bounds, and he was constantly seeking out new knowledge and understanding. Varro's intelligence and breadth of knowledge set him apart from his contemporaries, earning him a reputation as one of the most learned men of his time.

Statue of Marcus Terentius Varro (From Wikipedia)

Despite his vast intellect and erudition, Varro was also known for his humility and modesty. He never boasted about his accomplishments or sought praise for his achievements, preferring instead to let his work speak for itself. Varro's intellectual prowess was matched only by his humility, making him a revered figure among his peers and admirers.

Varro's legacy as a scholar and thinker continues to endure to this day, with many of his works still being studied and cited by modern scholars. His writings on language, religion, and agriculture have had a lasting impact on our understanding of ancient Rome, providing valuable insights into the culture and society of the time. Varro's influence on Roman scholarship cannot be overstated, as his works have shaped the way we view the ancient world and its people.

In conclusion, Marcus Terentius Varro was a remarkable figure in ancient Roman society, known for his exceptional intelligence, broad knowledge, and humble demeanor. His contributions to Roman scholarship in the fields of agriculture, language, philosophy, and religion have left an indelible mark on our understanding of the ancient world. Varro's intellectual legacy continues to inspire academics and thinkers to this day, making him a towering figure in the history of Roman scholarship.

 

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Vespasian: The Emperor Who Restored Rome

Vespasian: The Emperor Who Restored Rome

Vespasian, formally known as Titus Flavius Vespasianus, was the Roman emperor who reigned from 69 to 79 AD. His rule marked the end of the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors and the beginning of the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian's contributions to the stability and prosperity of the Roman Empire were profound, including significant military, economic, and infrastructural reforms. This comprehensive account of Vespasian's life and reign will explore his early years, rise to power, administrative policies, military campaigns, and his lasting legacy.

 

 

Vespasian c.70CE

Image: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark)

 

Vespasian was born on November 17, 9 AD, in the small village of Falacrinae, near Reate in the Sabine region of Italy. His family was of modest equestrian rank. His father, Titus Flavius Sabinus, worked as a tax collector and money lender, while his mother, Vespasia Polla, belonged to a more distinguished family.

Vespasian's early career followed the typical path of a Roman senator. He gained military experience in Thrace and held various public offices, including the quaestorship in Crete and Cyrenaica, aedileship, and praetorship. His military acumen was further demonstrated during the invasion of Britain in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius, where he commanded Legio II Augusta and achieved notable successes.

Rome's Greatest Emperor: Vespasian

 

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The Year of the 4 Emperors when Vitellius emerged as the victor Vespasian took his chance. It would prove a pivotal moment, stabilising the political and economic situation, and establishing the Flavian dynasty

 

The death of Nero in 68 AD triggered a period of intense instability known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Following Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius each claimed the imperial throne in rapid succession, leading to civil war and political chaos. During this tumultuous period, Vespasian was stationed in Judaea, tasked with suppressing the Jewish rebellion.

Vespasian's reputation as a capable and reliable general made him a strong contender for the throne. He secured the support of the eastern provinces, the legions stationed there, and influential figures like the governor of Syria, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. With their backing, Vespasian was declared emperor by his troops on July 1, 69 AD.

Vespasian faced the formidable task of consolidating his power amidst ongoing civil war. He left his son, Titus, in charge of the campaign in Judaea and headed to Egypt to secure the grain supply crucial for Rome. Meanwhile, Mucianus advanced with an army towards Italy to confront Vitellius.

Vitellius' forces were defeated at the Second Battle of Bedriacum in October 69 AD, and Vespasian's supporters captured Rome. On December 20, Vitellius was killed, and the Senate recognized Vespasian as emperor. He arrived in Rome in mid-70 AD, where he embarked on restoring order and stability.

One of Vespasian's primary goals was to stabilize the Roman economy, which had been severely strained by the civil wars and Nero's extravagances. He implemented rigorous financial reforms to replenish the state treasury. These included increasing taxes, reasserting control over provincial revenues, and introducing new taxes, such as the controversial urinae vectigal, a tax on public urinals.

 

Vespasian Sestertius"Judaea Capta" issued / Struck 71CE

Jewess in attitude of mourning, seated left beneath palm tree; to right, captive Jew with hands tied behind back standing left; captured weapons behind

Image: Wikipedia

Vespasian was also dedicated to rebuilding Rome's infrastructure. He initiated an extensive construction program, which included restoring the Capitol, building the Temple of Peace, and starting the construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. These projects not only provided employment but also served to reinforce the emperor's image as a restorer of Rome.

 

The Arch of Titus showing the Spoils of Jerusalem relief on the inside arch

Image: Wikipedia

Vespasian's military prowess was a cornerstone of his rule. The Jewish War, which had begun in 66 AD, was a significant concern. Under Titus, the Roman forces successfully besieged and captured Jerusalem in 70 AD, culminating in the destruction of the Second Temple. This victory was celebrated with a triumph in Rome and the construction of the Arch of Titus.

 

 

Close-up of relief showing spoils from the fall of Jerusalem

Image: Wikipedia

Vespasian also dealt with other rebellions and unrest across the empire. He strengthened the northern frontiers, notably in Britain, where campaigns under governors like Agricola pushed the boundaries further into Caledonia (modern Scotland). His policies ensured the Roman military was well-maintained and capable of defending and expanding the empire's territories.

Vespasian was known for his practical and no-nonsense approach to governance. Unlike his predecessor Nero, he avoided excessive displays of luxury and maintained a relatively modest lifestyle. His sense of humour and ability to relate to the common people earned him respect and popularity.

He was also pragmatic in his administration, relying on competent and loyal advisors. His sons, Titus and Domitian, played significant roles in his government, ensuring a smooth succession. Vespasian's reign is often credited with restoring stability and efficiency to the Roman bureaucracy, which had suffered under the previous emperors.

Vespasian promoted Roman religion and culture as unifying forces within the empire. He supported traditional Roman religious practices and initiated the construction of several temples. His reign also saw the continuation of the imperial cult, which deified the emperor and his family, reinforcing their divine right to rule.

He was also a patron of the arts and literature. The period saw the flourishing of Latin literature, with writers like Pliny the Elder and Martial contributing to Rome's cultural legacy. Vespasian's reign provided a stable environment in which intellectual and artistic pursuits could thrive.

Vespasian's impact on the Roman Empire was significant and long-lasting. His establishment of the Flavian dynasty ensured a period of relative stability after the chaos of the mid-first century. His financial and administrative reforms laid the foundation for the prosperity of the empire in the following decades.

 

Colosseum - Rome

Image: Wikipedia

The construction projects he initiated, especially the Colosseum, left an enduring mark on Rome's architectural heritage. The Colosseum, in particular, became a symbol of Roman engineering prowess and remains one of the most iconic landmarks of ancient Rome.

Vespasian's reign also set a precedent for future emperors regarding the importance of military support and the ability to maintain order and stability. His pragmatic approach to governance and emphasis on fiscal responsibility became benchmarks for subsequent rulers.

Emperor Vespasian was a pivotal figure in Roman history. His rise to power ended a period of unprecedented turmoil, and his reign brought much-needed stability and prosperity to the Roman Empire. Through his military successes, administrative reforms, and infrastructural projects, Vespasian restored confidence in the imperial office and set the stage for the achievements of his successors. His legacy endures in the enduring monuments he commissioned and the lasting impact of his policies on the Roman state.

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Rome's Greatest Emperor: Vespasian

 

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To anyone scanning the sea from the southern coast of Britain in the year 43 AD, the sight of hundreds of ships appearing one by one as dots on the horizon would have filled them with awe and dread. On a leading warship, a hundred and twenty oarsmen heaved at their work as one of the four legionary legates scanned the cliff tops expecting to see them lined with warriors as Julius Caesar had described nearly a hundred years before. Vespasian would lead the Second Augusta in the initial invasion and in a remarkable campaign across southern Britain, capturing a score of strongholds, oppida, such as the formidable Maiden Castle, along the way. His career later suffered from the intrigues of court politics during the reign of Nero, at one point making the near-fatal mistake of falling asleep during one of the emperor’s artistic performances. Vespasian’s fortunes were revived by the outbreak of revolt in Judea. Thus Vespasian found himself in the right place at the right time commanding a vast battle-hardened victorious army as the empire descended into civil war and chaos. The year 68-69 became known as ‘The Year of the Four Emperors’ as, after Nero’s suicide, Galba, Otho and Vitellius seized the throne in quick succession. When Vitellius emerged as the victor Vespasian took his chance. It would prove a pivotal moment in Rome’s history, stabilising the political and economic situation, and establishing the Flavian dynasty.

 

The Wisdom of Marcus Aurelius

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The Wisdom of Marcus Aurelius

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An exquisite abridged edition of Marcus Aurelius's Meditations by a renowned translator.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was the sixteenth emperor of Rome—and by far the most powerful man in the world. His collected thoughts, gems that have come to be called his Meditations, have proved an inexhaustible source of wisdom and one of the most important Stoic texts of all time. In often passionate language, the entries range from one-line aphorisms to essays, from profundity to bitterness.

An abridged and portable edition of Marcus Aurelius’s sage insights, The Wisdom of Marcus Aurelius illuminates one of the greatest works of popular philosophy ever composed.

 

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Lawless Republic - The Rise of Cicero and the Decline of Rome

Lawless Republic

The Rise of Cicero and the Decline of Rome

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The collapse of law and order in the last years of the Roman Republic told through the rise and fall of its most famous lawyer, Cicero.

In its final decades, the Roman Republic was engulfed by crime. Cases of extortion, murder and insurrection gave an ambitious young lawyer named Cicero high-profile opportunities to litigate and forge a reputation as a master debater with a bright political future. In Lawless Republic, leading Roman historian Josiah Osgood recounts the legendary orator's ascent and fall, and his pivotal role in the republic's lurch toward autocracy.

Cicero's first appearance in the courts came shortly after the end of a brutal civil war. After leveraging his fame as a lawyer to become a consul, he ruthlessly crushed a coup by suppressing the liberties of Roman citizens. The premiere legal mind of Rome came to argue that the pursuit of a higher justice could sometimes justify sweeping the law aside, laying the groundwork for Roman history's most famous act of political violence - the assassination of Julius Caesar.

Lawless Republic vividly resurrects the spectacle of the courts in the time of Cicero and Caesar, showing how politics trumped the rule of law and sealed the fate of Rome.

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How did the Romans deal with the snow?

How did the Romans deal with the snow?

 

The Romans—a civilization known for their engineering marvels, military prowess, and administrative genius. But how did they fare when it came to the challenge of snow?

 

It's important to note that the Roman Empire spanned a vast territory, encompassing regions with a variety of climates. From the temperate Mediterranean to the colder northern frontiers, the Romans had to adapt to a wide range of weather conditions. While snow was not a common issue in much of the empire, the northern provinces, such as Britannia (modern-day Britain), Gaul (modern-day France), and Germania, experienced their fair share of winter weather.

 

In regions where snow was a regular occurrence, Roman cities and settlements had to be designed to handle winter conditions. Streets were often paved to facilitate easier snow removal and improve drainage. The famous Roman roads, which were built to withstand the wear and tear of military and civilian use, also had to endure winter weather. These roads were constructed with layers of materials, including gravel and stones, to provide a durable surface that could be maintained throughout the year.

 

Romans were skilled in the art of heating their buildings. The hypocaust system, an ancient Roman method of underfloor heating, was used to warm public baths and private homes. This system involved a furnace that produced hot air, which was then circulated through a network of spaces beneath the floors and within the walls. This not only provided warmth but also helped to prevent dampness and mold, common issues in colder climates.

 

To keep warm, Romans wore layers of clothing made from wool and other insulating materials. The basic Roman garment, the tunic, was often layered with cloaks such as the paenula, a heavy, hooded cloak made of wool or leather. Soldiers stationed in colder regions were equipped with additional gear, including leggings, gloves, and fur-lined garments. Footwear was also adapted for winter conditions, with hobnailed sandals (caligae) being replaced by closed boots.

 

The Roman military was renowned for its ability to adapt to various environments. In snowy regions, soldiers were trained to maneuver and fight in winter conditions. Forts and camps were designed to provide shelter and warmth, with central heating systems and well-insulated buildings. The Roman army also utilized sledges and other equipment to transport supplies over snow-covered terrain.

 

Winter presented challenges for food supply and storage. The Romans were adept at preserving food through methods such as salting, smoking, and drying. Grain storage was particularly important, as grain was a staple of the Roman diet. Large granaries were constructed to store surplus grain, which could be distributed during the winter months. In addition, the Roman road network facilitated the movement of supplies, ensuring that even remote outposts could receive the provisions they needed.

 

Maintaining infrastructure in snowy regions required regular snow removal. While we don't have detailed records of Roman snow plows, it is likely that they used simple tools such as shovels and brooms to clear roads and pathways. The importance of keeping roads passable would have been particularly crucial for military and trade purposes.

 

Winter could be a time of increased community activity. Public baths, heated by the hypocaust system, provided a warm gathering place for socializing and relaxation. Feasts and festivals, such as Saturnalia, offered opportunities for communal celebration and respite from the cold. Additionally, Romans engaged in various indoor activities, including board games, storytelling, and craftsmanship, to pass the time during the winter months.

 

Roman engineering prowess was not limited to their roads and heating systems. In colder regions, buildings were often constructed with thicker walls and smaller windows to improve insulation. Roofs were designed with steeper pitches to prevent snow accumulation and potential collapse. These architectural adaptations helped ensure that structures remained functional and safe during the winter.

 

Picture: Edoardo Fornaciari / Getty Images

 

The Romans were highly innovative and adaptive. They borrowed techniques and practices from the cultures they encountered and incorporated them into their own systems. For example, in the colder regions of the empire, they may have adopted local methods of construction, heating, and clothing to better cope with winter conditions.

 

The Roman approach to dealing with snow and winter weather left a lasting impact on subsequent European civilizations. Many of their innovations in heating, architecture, and infrastructure influenced medieval and Renaissance practices. The Roman emphasis on maintaining roads and public buildings set a standard for future generations, ensuring that communities could remain connected and functional even in harsh winter conditions.

 

While snow was not a ubiquitous concern across the entirety of the Roman Empire, the regions that did experience winter weather saw the Romans rise to the challenge with their characteristic ingenuity. From advanced heating systems to robust infrastructure and adaptive clothing, the Romans developed a variety of strategies to cope with the cold. Their ability to adapt to and overcome environmental challenges is yet another testament to the ingenuity and resilience of this remarkable civilization.

 

Pax: War & Peace in Rome's Golden Age

The definitive history of Rome's golden age - antiquity's ultimate superpower at the pinnacle of its greatness. The Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to Arabia

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