The Roman Calendar

The Roman Calendar

The Roman calendar is a fascinating topic! It has evolved significantly over time, reflecting the changes in Roman society and their understanding of astronomy. Here's a detailed overview:

Early Roman Calendar

The earliest Roman calendar, attributed to Romulus, the founder of Rome, was a lunar calendar with 10 months and a total of 304 days. The months were:

Martius (31 days)

Aprilis (30 days)

Maius (31 days)

Junius (30 days)

Quintilis (31 days)

Sextilis (30 days)

September (30 days)

October (31 days)

November (30 days)

December (30 days)

 

Numa Pompilius' Reforms

 Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, reformed the calendar around 713 BCE. He added two months, Januarius and Februarius, to align the calendar more closely with the lunar year. The revised calendar had 355 days:

 

Januarius (29 days)

Februarius (28 days)

Martius (31 days)

Aprilis (30 days)

Maius (31 days)

Junius (30 days)

Quintilis (31 days)

Sextilis (30 days)

September (30 days)

October (31 days)

November (30 days)

December (30 days)

 

Intercalation

 To keep the calendar in sync with the solar year, the Romans used a system of intercalation, adding an extra month called Mercedonius or Intercalaris. This month was inserted after Februarius every two or three years, but the system was often manipulated for political purposes, leading to confusion.

 

Julian Calendar

 Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar in 46 BCE, creating the Julian calendar. He introduced a solar calendar with 365 days and a leap year every four years. The months were:

 

Januarius (31 days)

Februarius (28/29 days)

Martius (31 days)

Aprilis (30 days)

Maius (31 days)

Junius (30 days)

Quintilis (31 days) - later renamed Julius in honor of Julius Caesar

Sextilis (31 days) - later renamed Augustus in honor of Emperor Augustus

September (30 days)

October (31 days)

November (30 days)

December (31 days)

 

Gregorian Calendar

 The Julian calendar was used until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. The Gregorian calendar corrected the inaccuracies of the Julian calendar by adjusting the leap year rule and realigning the calendar with the solar year.

 

Conclusion

 The Roman calendar's evolution reflects the Romans' efforts to create a more accurate and practical system for measuring time. From its early lunar roots to the solar-based Julian calendar, the Roman calendar has had a lasting impact on the way we measure time today.

 

The Roman Calendar: Origins & Festivals

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This book explores the origins of our calendar which dates back to the days of ancient Rome. The festivals and various celebrations are described, from the wild excesses of the Lupercalia to the gentler pastoral Floralia and Ambarvalia, the Roman zest for life shines through their year. The whole of the Roman world can be found in the chronology of time. How they related to their God's and Goddesses, their mythology, their sports, harvests, work and play. Now is the time to decode this enigma and see how the Romans really lived, so turn back the clock, step back in time, its all in our calendar!

 

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Roman Festival Of Saturnalia

Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival held in honour of the god Saturn, known as the god of agriculture, liberation, and time.

 

Saturnalia was observed from December 17 to 23, though it could be extended in some years. It was one of the most popular holidays in the Roman calendar, characterized by a reversal of social roles, where masters might serve their slaves, and slaves could enjoy a degree of freedom and respect. This role reversal was symbolic of the golden age of Saturn when all were equal.

 

  

Saturnalia (1783) by Antoine-François Callet, showing his interpretation of what the Saturnalia might have looked like

 

At Saturnalia there were lavish feasts and banquets. Gambling was normally forbidden, but was allowed during this period. Gift-Giving or tokens, often humorous or satirical, were exchanged among friends and family. People would wear colourful clothing and masks, adding to the festive atmosphere. The festival had religious rituals like sacrifices at the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum, but over time, the religious aspects became less central compared to the social festivities. Saturnalia has left a cultural legacy, influencing the modern Christmas celebrations, particularly with aspects like feasting, gift-giving, and the general atmosphere of merriment and relaxation from social norms.

 

Saturnalia was not only a time of celebration but also a reflection of Roman society's ability to temporarily suspend its strict social hierarchies in favour of communal joy and equality.

 

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The Roman Poet and Satirist Aulus Persius Flaccus

The Roman Poet and Satirist Aulus Persius Flaccus

 

Aulus Persius Flaccus, often simply known as Persius, was a Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin, born in Volterra (Volaterrae) on December 4, 34 AD, and died on November 24, 62 AD. He was part of the equestrian class, which was below the senatorial class but above commoners, and he was connected by blood and marriage to individuals of high social standing. Persius was known for his Stoic philosophy and his sharp criticism of the stylistic excesses of his contemporary poets.

Francesco Stelluti: Persius

 

 Education and Influences: Persius received his early education in Volterra and then moved to Rome at the age of twelve to study grammar and rhetoric. He was influenced by the Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, with whom he developed a close relationship. His style and themes were also shaped by earlier Roman satirists like Lucilius and Horace, although he took a more concentrated and morally focused approach to satire.

Works and Style: Persius wrote six satires, which are concise and dense with philosophical content, focusing on Stoic ethics, the critique of contemporary Roman society, and the need for moral reform. His works are characterized by a difficult, often obscure style, using complex language and unexpected metaphors, which has both puzzled and intrigued readers over centuries. These satires were published posthumously by his mentor Cornutus and became highly influential, particularly during the Middle Ages.

Personal Life: Persius was described as having a gentle disposition, modest, and personally beautiful, living a life of devotion to his family. He died young at the age of 28 from a stomach ailment, leaving behind works that, although few in number, had a significant impact on the genre of satire.

Legacy: His influence can be seen in the works of later satirists like Juvenal. Persius's satires are noted for their moral earnestness and the depth of Stoic thought, contrasting with the often more light-hearted or politically focused satires of his predecessors. His works continue to be studied for their philosophical insights and literary style.

 

The Satires of Horace and Persius (Penguin Classics)

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The Satires of Horace (65-8 BC), written in the troubled decade ending with the establishment of Augustus' regime, provide an amusing treatment of men's perennial enslavement to money, power, glory and sex. Epistles I, addressed to the poet's friends, deals with the problem of achieving contentment amid the complexities of urban life, while Epistles II and the Ars Poetica discuss Latin poetry - its history and social functions, and the craft required for its success. Both works have had a powerful influence on later Western literature, inspiring poets from Ben Jonson and Alexander Pope to W. H. Auden and Robert Frost. The Satires of Persius (AD 34-62) are highly idiosyncratic, containing a courageous attack on the poetry and morals of his wealthy contemporaries - even the ruling emperor, Nero.

 

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Galla Placidia and the Fall of the Roman Empire

Empress Galla Placidia played a significant role during a tumultuous period in the history of the Roman Empire, particularly during the early 5th century, which saw the Western Roman Empire in decline.

Early Life and Family Background

Galla Placidia was born around 388 AD, the daughter of Emperor Theodosius I and his second wife, Galla, who was the daughter of Emperor Valentinian I. As part of the Theodosian dynasty, she was connected to a lineage of influential rulers, including her half-brothers Arcadius and Honorius, who would become emperors of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, respectively.

Captivity and Marriage

In 410 AD, during the Sack of Rome by the Visigoths under Alaric, Galla Placidia was captured. Despite her noble status, she was taken to Gaul with the Visigoths. There, she married the Visigothic king, Ataulf, in 414 AD. This marriage was politically significant, symbolizing a temporary alliance between the Romans and the Visigoths. Their union produced a son, Theodosius, who died in infancy, and after Ataulf's assassination, Galla Placidia returned to Roman custody.

 

Galla Placidia

 Image Wikimedia

Influence as Empress

After her return, Galla Placidia married Constantius III, a prominent general who became co-emperor with Honorius in 421 AD. Their marriage produced two children, Valentinian III and Justa Grata Honoria. When Constantius III died shortly after being named co-emperor, Galla Placidia became a widow again, and her political influence increased, particularly after the death of her brother Honorius in 423 AD.

Regency and Political Maneuvering

Upon Honorius's death, Galla Placidia became regent for her young son, Valentinian III, who was declared emperor in 425 AD. Her regency lasted until Valentinian III came of age. During this time, she navigated the complexities of Roman politics, managing relations with powerful generals like Flavius Aetius and combating internal threats and external pressures from various barbarian groups.

Legacy and Later Life

Galla Placidia's efforts to maintain the stability of the Western Roman Empire were marked by both successes and challenges. She played a critical role in the construction of churches and patronage of Christian projects, contributing to the religious and cultural life of the period. One of her most famous contributions is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which is renowned for its stunning mosaics and stands as a testament to early Christian art.

 

Empress Galla Placidia and the Fall of the Roman Empire

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Galla Placidia died in 450 AD, just before the Western Roman Empire's final collapse. Her life and regency were emblematic of the era's struggles, balancing internal Roman politics and external threats, reflecting the complex dynamics that led to the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Conclusion

Galla Placidia's life intersected with many pivotal events and figures of her time. As empress, regent, and mother of an emperor, she wielded considerable influence during one of the most challenging periods in Roman history. Her legacy, both political and cultural, highlights the significant role she played in the final decades of the Western Roman Empire.

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Roman Dodecahedron

The Roman dodecahedron is a small, hollow object made of bronze or, more rarely, stone, with a geometrical shape that has 12 flat faces. Each face is a pentagon, a five-sided shape. The Roman dodecahedra are also embellished with a series of knobs on each corner point of the pentagons, and the pentagon faces in most cases contain circular holes in them. The size of the Roman dodecahedrons can vary, with heights ranging from about 1.5 to 4.5 inches (4 to 11 centimeters). Their historical and functional significance has been a subject of considerable intrigue and speculation.

Roman Dodecahedron

Image Wikipedia

 

The purpose of the Roman dodecahedron remains a mystery to this day, with numerous theories proposed to explain its function. Some of the more popular theories include that it could have been used as a measuring device on the battlefield, a tool for determining the optimal date for sowing winter grain, a candle holder, a religious artifact, a die for a game, or even as a knitting tool for making gloves. However, there is no definitive evidence to support any of these theories conclusively.

The Roman dodecahedron is an artifact that has sparked much curiosity due to its unique design and the lack of clear historical context. It is a testament to the diversity of objects and the potential range of functions they could have had in the Roman world. The mystery surrounding this artifact continues to intrigue scholars and the public alike, making it a fascinating subject of study and speculation.

 

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How did the Romans protect themselves from the sun?

The ancient Romans used various methods to protect themselves from the sun, including the use of natural materials and specific practices. One of the most common methods was to wear wide-brimmed hats, which provided shade to the face, neck, and shoulders. Additionally, they would often drape themselves in lightweight, light-colored tunics made of linen or wool, which helped reflect the sun's rays and keep the body cool.

In terms of skin protection, it is known that ancient civilizations, including the Romans, had an understanding of the sun's harmful effects on the skin. They would use various natural ingredients to create ointments and oils to protect their skin from the sun. These ingredients included olive oil, beeswax, and various plant extracts known for their soothing and protective properties.

Moreover, the Romans were conscious of the sun's intensity during different times of the day. They would often seek shade during the hottest hours of the day and schedule their outdoor activities for the cooler parts of the day, such as early morning or late afternoon.

 Sol is the personification of the Sun and a god in ancient Roman religion

 Image Wikipedia

 

Lastly, it's worth noting that the Romans were also aware of the importance of hydration in hot weather. They would drink water and other refreshing beverages, such as diluted wine, to keep themselves hydrated and cool.

These practices show that the ancient Romans were quite adept at protecting themselves from the sun, using a combination of clothing, natural products, and smart scheduling to minimize their exposure to harmful UV rays.

 

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Roman Coins

Roman coins, spanning from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire, were minted in various denominations and materials such as gold, silver, and bronze. They featured portraits of emperors and significant symbols on their faces, reflecting the political, cultural, and economic aspects of Roman society. Notable among the coins are those depicting the Colosseum, Trajan’s Column, and the Temple of Vesta, showcasing Roman architecture on coinage.

The Roman currency system included denarii, the standard silver denomination, and nummi, bronze coins. The coinage often reflected the political climate of the time, with changes in the ruling emperor or significant events leading to alterations in the design and minting of coins. For example, coins were struck to celebrate the move of the capital of the Empire from Rome to Constantinople in AD 330 by Constantine the Great.

Moneta: A History of Ancient Rome in Twelve Coins

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The Romans saw coins as far more than just money – these were metal canvases on which they immortalised their sacred gods, mighty emperors, towering monuments, and brutal battles of conquest

Recent archaeological findings have unveiled a variety of Roman coin hoards across Europe. For instance, in Italy, a hoard of nearly 200 Roman coins was found in a terra-cotta pot, providing insights into the Social War and the civil war between Sulla and the Marians. In the Conwy Valley, a large hoard of Roman coins was discovered in a ceramic vessel, revealing a mix of silver and copper-alloy coins. These discoveries not only offer a glimpse into the economic history of the Roman Empire but also shed light on the religious practices and societal customs of the time.

The study of Roman coins is crucial for understanding the historical context of Roman society, including its political structure, economic systems, and cultural values. Each coin tells a story, making them valuable historical artifacts that continue to fascinate scholars and the public alike.

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Image Wikipedia