Vespasian: The Emperor Who Restored Rome

Vespasian: The Emperor Who Restored Rome

Vespasian, formally known as Titus Flavius Vespasianus, was the Roman emperor who reigned from 69 to 79 AD. His rule marked the end of the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors and the beginning of the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian's contributions to the stability and prosperity of the Roman Empire were profound, including significant military, economic, and infrastructural reforms. This comprehensive account of Vespasian's life and reign will explore his early years, rise to power, administrative policies, military campaigns, and his lasting legacy.

 

 

Vespasian c.70CE

Image: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark)

 

Vespasian was born on November 17, 9 AD, in the small village of Falacrinae, near Reate in the Sabine region of Italy. His family was of modest equestrian rank. His father, Titus Flavius Sabinus, worked as a tax collector and money lender, while his mother, Vespasia Polla, belonged to a more distinguished family.

Vespasian's early career followed the typical path of a Roman senator. He gained military experience in Thrace and held various public offices, including the quaestorship in Crete and Cyrenaica, aedileship, and praetorship. His military acumen was further demonstrated during the invasion of Britain in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius, where he commanded Legio II Augusta and achieved notable successes.

Rome's Greatest Emperor: Vespasian

 

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The Year of the 4 Emperors when Vitellius emerged as the victor Vespasian took his chance. It would prove a pivotal moment, stabilising the political and economic situation, and establishing the Flavian dynasty

 

The death of Nero in 68 AD triggered a period of intense instability known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Following Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius each claimed the imperial throne in rapid succession, leading to civil war and political chaos. During this tumultuous period, Vespasian was stationed in Judaea, tasked with suppressing the Jewish rebellion.

Vespasian's reputation as a capable and reliable general made him a strong contender for the throne. He secured the support of the eastern provinces, the legions stationed there, and influential figures like the governor of Syria, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. With their backing, Vespasian was declared emperor by his troops on July 1, 69 AD.

Vespasian faced the formidable task of consolidating his power amidst ongoing civil war. He left his son, Titus, in charge of the campaign in Judaea and headed to Egypt to secure the grain supply crucial for Rome. Meanwhile, Mucianus advanced with an army towards Italy to confront Vitellius.

Vitellius' forces were defeated at the Second Battle of Bedriacum in October 69 AD, and Vespasian's supporters captured Rome. On December 20, Vitellius was killed, and the Senate recognized Vespasian as emperor. He arrived in Rome in mid-70 AD, where he embarked on restoring order and stability.

One of Vespasian's primary goals was to stabilize the Roman economy, which had been severely strained by the civil wars and Nero's extravagances. He implemented rigorous financial reforms to replenish the state treasury. These included increasing taxes, reasserting control over provincial revenues, and introducing new taxes, such as the controversial urinae vectigal, a tax on public urinals.

 

Vespasian Sestertius"Judaea Capta" issued / Struck 71CE

Jewess in attitude of mourning, seated left beneath palm tree; to right, captive Jew with hands tied behind back standing left; captured weapons behind

Image: Wikipedia

Vespasian was also dedicated to rebuilding Rome's infrastructure. He initiated an extensive construction program, which included restoring the Capitol, building the Temple of Peace, and starting the construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. These projects not only provided employment but also served to reinforce the emperor's image as a restorer of Rome.

 

The Arch of Titus showing the Spoils of Jerusalem relief on the inside arch

Image: Wikipedia

Vespasian's military prowess was a cornerstone of his rule. The Jewish War, which had begun in 66 AD, was a significant concern. Under Titus, the Roman forces successfully besieged and captured Jerusalem in 70 AD, culminating in the destruction of the Second Temple. This victory was celebrated with a triumph in Rome and the construction of the Arch of Titus.

 

 

Close-up of relief showing spoils from the fall of Jerusalem

Image: Wikipedia

Vespasian also dealt with other rebellions and unrest across the empire. He strengthened the northern frontiers, notably in Britain, where campaigns under governors like Agricola pushed the boundaries further into Caledonia (modern Scotland). His policies ensured the Roman military was well-maintained and capable of defending and expanding the empire's territories.

Vespasian was known for his practical and no-nonsense approach to governance. Unlike his predecessor Nero, he avoided excessive displays of luxury and maintained a relatively modest lifestyle. His sense of humour and ability to relate to the common people earned him respect and popularity.

He was also pragmatic in his administration, relying on competent and loyal advisors. His sons, Titus and Domitian, played significant roles in his government, ensuring a smooth succession. Vespasian's reign is often credited with restoring stability and efficiency to the Roman bureaucracy, which had suffered under the previous emperors.

Vespasian promoted Roman religion and culture as unifying forces within the empire. He supported traditional Roman religious practices and initiated the construction of several temples. His reign also saw the continuation of the imperial cult, which deified the emperor and his family, reinforcing their divine right to rule.

He was also a patron of the arts and literature. The period saw the flourishing of Latin literature, with writers like Pliny the Elder and Martial contributing to Rome's cultural legacy. Vespasian's reign provided a stable environment in which intellectual and artistic pursuits could thrive.

Vespasian's impact on the Roman Empire was significant and long-lasting. His establishment of the Flavian dynasty ensured a period of relative stability after the chaos of the mid-first century. His financial and administrative reforms laid the foundation for the prosperity of the empire in the following decades.

 

Colosseum - Rome

Image: Wikipedia

The construction projects he initiated, especially the Colosseum, left an enduring mark on Rome's architectural heritage. The Colosseum, in particular, became a symbol of Roman engineering prowess and remains one of the most iconic landmarks of ancient Rome.

Vespasian's reign also set a precedent for future emperors regarding the importance of military support and the ability to maintain order and stability. His pragmatic approach to governance and emphasis on fiscal responsibility became benchmarks for subsequent rulers.

Emperor Vespasian was a pivotal figure in Roman history. His rise to power ended a period of unprecedented turmoil, and his reign brought much-needed stability and prosperity to the Roman Empire. Through his military successes, administrative reforms, and infrastructural projects, Vespasian restored confidence in the imperial office and set the stage for the achievements of his successors. His legacy endures in the enduring monuments he commissioned and the lasting impact of his policies on the Roman state.

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Rome's Greatest Emperor: Vespasian

 

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To anyone scanning the sea from the southern coast of Britain in the year 43 AD, the sight of hundreds of ships appearing one by one as dots on the horizon would have filled them with awe and dread. On a leading warship, a hundred and twenty oarsmen heaved at their work as one of the four legionary legates scanned the cliff tops expecting to see them lined with warriors as Julius Caesar had described nearly a hundred years before. Vespasian would lead the Second Augusta in the initial invasion and in a remarkable campaign across southern Britain, capturing a score of strongholds, oppida, such as the formidable Maiden Castle, along the way. His career later suffered from the intrigues of court politics during the reign of Nero, at one point making the near-fatal mistake of falling asleep during one of the emperor’s artistic performances. Vespasian’s fortunes were revived by the outbreak of revolt in Judea. Thus Vespasian found himself in the right place at the right time commanding a vast battle-hardened victorious army as the empire descended into civil war and chaos. The year 68-69 became known as ‘The Year of the Four Emperors’ as, after Nero’s suicide, Galba, Otho and Vitellius seized the throne in quick succession. When Vitellius emerged as the victor Vespasian took his chance. It would prove a pivotal moment in Rome’s history, stabilising the political and economic situation, and establishing the Flavian dynasty.

 

The Wisdom of Marcus Aurelius

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The Wisdom of Marcus Aurelius

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An exquisite abridged edition of Marcus Aurelius's Meditations by a renowned translator.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was the sixteenth emperor of Rome—and by far the most powerful man in the world. His collected thoughts, gems that have come to be called his Meditations, have proved an inexhaustible source of wisdom and one of the most important Stoic texts of all time. In often passionate language, the entries range from one-line aphorisms to essays, from profundity to bitterness.

An abridged and portable edition of Marcus Aurelius’s sage insights, The Wisdom of Marcus Aurelius illuminates one of the greatest works of popular philosophy ever composed.

 

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Lawless Republic - The Rise of Cicero and the Decline of Rome

Lawless Republic

The Rise of Cicero and the Decline of Rome

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The collapse of law and order in the last years of the Roman Republic told through the rise and fall of its most famous lawyer, Cicero.

In its final decades, the Roman Republic was engulfed by crime. Cases of extortion, murder and insurrection gave an ambitious young lawyer named Cicero high-profile opportunities to litigate and forge a reputation as a master debater with a bright political future. In Lawless Republic, leading Roman historian Josiah Osgood recounts the legendary orator's ascent and fall, and his pivotal role in the republic's lurch toward autocracy.

Cicero's first appearance in the courts came shortly after the end of a brutal civil war. After leveraging his fame as a lawyer to become a consul, he ruthlessly crushed a coup by suppressing the liberties of Roman citizens. The premiere legal mind of Rome came to argue that the pursuit of a higher justice could sometimes justify sweeping the law aside, laying the groundwork for Roman history's most famous act of political violence - the assassination of Julius Caesar.

Lawless Republic vividly resurrects the spectacle of the courts in the time of Cicero and Caesar, showing how politics trumped the rule of law and sealed the fate of Rome.

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How did the Romans deal with the snow?

How did the Romans deal with the snow?

 

The Romans—a civilization known for their engineering marvels, military prowess, and administrative genius. But how did they fare when it came to the challenge of snow?

 

It's important to note that the Roman Empire spanned a vast territory, encompassing regions with a variety of climates. From the temperate Mediterranean to the colder northern frontiers, the Romans had to adapt to a wide range of weather conditions. While snow was not a common issue in much of the empire, the northern provinces, such as Britannia (modern-day Britain), Gaul (modern-day France), and Germania, experienced their fair share of winter weather.

 

In regions where snow was a regular occurrence, Roman cities and settlements had to be designed to handle winter conditions. Streets were often paved to facilitate easier snow removal and improve drainage. The famous Roman roads, which were built to withstand the wear and tear of military and civilian use, also had to endure winter weather. These roads were constructed with layers of materials, including gravel and stones, to provide a durable surface that could be maintained throughout the year.

 

Romans were skilled in the art of heating their buildings. The hypocaust system, an ancient Roman method of underfloor heating, was used to warm public baths and private homes. This system involved a furnace that produced hot air, which was then circulated through a network of spaces beneath the floors and within the walls. This not only provided warmth but also helped to prevent dampness and mold, common issues in colder climates.

 

To keep warm, Romans wore layers of clothing made from wool and other insulating materials. The basic Roman garment, the tunic, was often layered with cloaks such as the paenula, a heavy, hooded cloak made of wool or leather. Soldiers stationed in colder regions were equipped with additional gear, including leggings, gloves, and fur-lined garments. Footwear was also adapted for winter conditions, with hobnailed sandals (caligae) being replaced by closed boots.

 

The Roman military was renowned for its ability to adapt to various environments. In snowy regions, soldiers were trained to maneuver and fight in winter conditions. Forts and camps were designed to provide shelter and warmth, with central heating systems and well-insulated buildings. The Roman army also utilized sledges and other equipment to transport supplies over snow-covered terrain.

 

Winter presented challenges for food supply and storage. The Romans were adept at preserving food through methods such as salting, smoking, and drying. Grain storage was particularly important, as grain was a staple of the Roman diet. Large granaries were constructed to store surplus grain, which could be distributed during the winter months. In addition, the Roman road network facilitated the movement of supplies, ensuring that even remote outposts could receive the provisions they needed.

 

Maintaining infrastructure in snowy regions required regular snow removal. While we don't have detailed records of Roman snow plows, it is likely that they used simple tools such as shovels and brooms to clear roads and pathways. The importance of keeping roads passable would have been particularly crucial for military and trade purposes.

 

Winter could be a time of increased community activity. Public baths, heated by the hypocaust system, provided a warm gathering place for socializing and relaxation. Feasts and festivals, such as Saturnalia, offered opportunities for communal celebration and respite from the cold. Additionally, Romans engaged in various indoor activities, including board games, storytelling, and craftsmanship, to pass the time during the winter months.

 

Roman engineering prowess was not limited to their roads and heating systems. In colder regions, buildings were often constructed with thicker walls and smaller windows to improve insulation. Roofs were designed with steeper pitches to prevent snow accumulation and potential collapse. These architectural adaptations helped ensure that structures remained functional and safe during the winter.

 

Picture: Edoardo Fornaciari / Getty Images

 

The Romans were highly innovative and adaptive. They borrowed techniques and practices from the cultures they encountered and incorporated them into their own systems. For example, in the colder regions of the empire, they may have adopted local methods of construction, heating, and clothing to better cope with winter conditions.

 

The Roman approach to dealing with snow and winter weather left a lasting impact on subsequent European civilizations. Many of their innovations in heating, architecture, and infrastructure influenced medieval and Renaissance practices. The Roman emphasis on maintaining roads and public buildings set a standard for future generations, ensuring that communities could remain connected and functional even in harsh winter conditions.

 

While snow was not a ubiquitous concern across the entirety of the Roman Empire, the regions that did experience winter weather saw the Romans rise to the challenge with their characteristic ingenuity. From advanced heating systems to robust infrastructure and adaptive clothing, the Romans developed a variety of strategies to cope with the cold. Their ability to adapt to and overcome environmental challenges is yet another testament to the ingenuity and resilience of this remarkable civilization.

 

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The definitive history of Rome's golden age - antiquity's ultimate superpower at the pinnacle of its greatness. The Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to Arabia

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The Roman Calendar

The Roman Calendar

The Roman calendar is a fascinating topic! It has evolved significantly over time, reflecting the changes in Roman society and their understanding of astronomy. Here's a detailed overview:

Early Roman Calendar

The earliest Roman calendar, attributed to Romulus, the founder of Rome, was a lunar calendar with 10 months and a total of 304 days. The months were:

Martius (31 days)

Aprilis (30 days)

Maius (31 days)

Junius (30 days)

Quintilis (31 days)

Sextilis (30 days)

September (30 days)

October (31 days)

November (30 days)

December (30 days)

 

Numa Pompilius' Reforms

 Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, reformed the calendar around 713 BCE. He added two months, Januarius and Februarius, to align the calendar more closely with the lunar year. The revised calendar had 355 days:

 

Januarius (29 days)

Februarius (28 days)

Martius (31 days)

Aprilis (30 days)

Maius (31 days)

Junius (30 days)

Quintilis (31 days)

Sextilis (30 days)

September (30 days)

October (31 days)

November (30 days)

December (30 days)

 

Intercalation

 To keep the calendar in sync with the solar year, the Romans used a system of intercalation, adding an extra month called Mercedonius or Intercalaris. This month was inserted after Februarius every two or three years, but the system was often manipulated for political purposes, leading to confusion.

 

Julian Calendar

 Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar in 46 BCE, creating the Julian calendar. He introduced a solar calendar with 365 days and a leap year every four years. The months were:

 

Januarius (31 days)

Februarius (28/29 days)

Martius (31 days)

Aprilis (30 days)

Maius (31 days)

Junius (30 days)

Quintilis (31 days) - later renamed Julius in honor of Julius Caesar

Sextilis (31 days) - later renamed Augustus in honor of Emperor Augustus

September (30 days)

October (31 days)

November (30 days)

December (31 days)

 

Gregorian Calendar

 The Julian calendar was used until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. The Gregorian calendar corrected the inaccuracies of the Julian calendar by adjusting the leap year rule and realigning the calendar with the solar year.

 

Conclusion

 The Roman calendar's evolution reflects the Romans' efforts to create a more accurate and practical system for measuring time. From its early lunar roots to the solar-based Julian calendar, the Roman calendar has had a lasting impact on the way we measure time today.

 

The Roman Calendar: Origins & Festivals

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This book explores the origins of our calendar which dates back to the days of ancient Rome. The festivals and various celebrations are described, from the wild excesses of the Lupercalia to the gentler pastoral Floralia and Ambarvalia, the Roman zest for life shines through their year. The whole of the Roman world can be found in the chronology of time. How they related to their God's and Goddesses, their mythology, their sports, harvests, work and play. Now is the time to decode this enigma and see how the Romans really lived, so turn back the clock, step back in time, its all in our calendar!

 

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Roman Festival Of Saturnalia

Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival held in honour of the god Saturn, known as the god of agriculture, liberation, and time.

 

Saturnalia was observed from December 17 to 23, though it could be extended in some years. It was one of the most popular holidays in the Roman calendar, characterized by a reversal of social roles, where masters might serve their slaves, and slaves could enjoy a degree of freedom and respect. This role reversal was symbolic of the golden age of Saturn when all were equal.

 

  

Saturnalia (1783) by Antoine-François Callet, showing his interpretation of what the Saturnalia might have looked like

 

At Saturnalia there were lavish feasts and banquets. Gambling was normally forbidden, but was allowed during this period. Gift-Giving or tokens, often humorous or satirical, were exchanged among friends and family. People would wear colourful clothing and masks, adding to the festive atmosphere. The festival had religious rituals like sacrifices at the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum, but over time, the religious aspects became less central compared to the social festivities. Saturnalia has left a cultural legacy, influencing the modern Christmas celebrations, particularly with aspects like feasting, gift-giving, and the general atmosphere of merriment and relaxation from social norms.

 

Saturnalia was not only a time of celebration but also a reflection of Roman society's ability to temporarily suspend its strict social hierarchies in favour of communal joy and equality.

 

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The Roman Poet and Satirist Aulus Persius Flaccus

The Roman Poet and Satirist Aulus Persius Flaccus

 

Aulus Persius Flaccus, often simply known as Persius, was a Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin, born in Volterra (Volaterrae) on December 4, 34 AD, and died on November 24, 62 AD. He was part of the equestrian class, which was below the senatorial class but above commoners, and he was connected by blood and marriage to individuals of high social standing. Persius was known for his Stoic philosophy and his sharp criticism of the stylistic excesses of his contemporary poets.

Francesco Stelluti: Persius

 

 Education and Influences: Persius received his early education in Volterra and then moved to Rome at the age of twelve to study grammar and rhetoric. He was influenced by the Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, with whom he developed a close relationship. His style and themes were also shaped by earlier Roman satirists like Lucilius and Horace, although he took a more concentrated and morally focused approach to satire.

Works and Style: Persius wrote six satires, which are concise and dense with philosophical content, focusing on Stoic ethics, the critique of contemporary Roman society, and the need for moral reform. His works are characterized by a difficult, often obscure style, using complex language and unexpected metaphors, which has both puzzled and intrigued readers over centuries. These satires were published posthumously by his mentor Cornutus and became highly influential, particularly during the Middle Ages.

Personal Life: Persius was described as having a gentle disposition, modest, and personally beautiful, living a life of devotion to his family. He died young at the age of 28 from a stomach ailment, leaving behind works that, although few in number, had a significant impact on the genre of satire.

Legacy: His influence can be seen in the works of later satirists like Juvenal. Persius's satires are noted for their moral earnestness and the depth of Stoic thought, contrasting with the often more light-hearted or politically focused satires of his predecessors. His works continue to be studied for their philosophical insights and literary style.

 

The Satires of Horace and Persius (Penguin Classics)

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The Satires of Horace (65-8 BC), written in the troubled decade ending with the establishment of Augustus' regime, provide an amusing treatment of men's perennial enslavement to money, power, glory and sex. Epistles I, addressed to the poet's friends, deals with the problem of achieving contentment amid the complexities of urban life, while Epistles II and the Ars Poetica discuss Latin poetry - its history and social functions, and the craft required for its success. Both works have had a powerful influence on later Western literature, inspiring poets from Ben Jonson and Alexander Pope to W. H. Auden and Robert Frost. The Satires of Persius (AD 34-62) are highly idiosyncratic, containing a courageous attack on the poetry and morals of his wealthy contemporaries - even the ruling emperor, Nero.

 

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Galla Placidia and the Fall of the Roman Empire

Empress Galla Placidia played a significant role during a tumultuous period in the history of the Roman Empire, particularly during the early 5th century, which saw the Western Roman Empire in decline.

Early Life and Family Background

Galla Placidia was born around 388 AD, the daughter of Emperor Theodosius I and his second wife, Galla, who was the daughter of Emperor Valentinian I. As part of the Theodosian dynasty, she was connected to a lineage of influential rulers, including her half-brothers Arcadius and Honorius, who would become emperors of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, respectively.

Captivity and Marriage

In 410 AD, during the Sack of Rome by the Visigoths under Alaric, Galla Placidia was captured. Despite her noble status, she was taken to Gaul with the Visigoths. There, she married the Visigothic king, Ataulf, in 414 AD. This marriage was politically significant, symbolizing a temporary alliance between the Romans and the Visigoths. Their union produced a son, Theodosius, who died in infancy, and after Ataulf's assassination, Galla Placidia returned to Roman custody.

 

Galla Placidia

 Image Wikimedia

Influence as Empress

After her return, Galla Placidia married Constantius III, a prominent general who became co-emperor with Honorius in 421 AD. Their marriage produced two children, Valentinian III and Justa Grata Honoria. When Constantius III died shortly after being named co-emperor, Galla Placidia became a widow again, and her political influence increased, particularly after the death of her brother Honorius in 423 AD.

Regency and Political Maneuvering

Upon Honorius's death, Galla Placidia became regent for her young son, Valentinian III, who was declared emperor in 425 AD. Her regency lasted until Valentinian III came of age. During this time, she navigated the complexities of Roman politics, managing relations with powerful generals like Flavius Aetius and combating internal threats and external pressures from various barbarian groups.

Legacy and Later Life

Galla Placidia's efforts to maintain the stability of the Western Roman Empire were marked by both successes and challenges. She played a critical role in the construction of churches and patronage of Christian projects, contributing to the religious and cultural life of the period. One of her most famous contributions is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which is renowned for its stunning mosaics and stands as a testament to early Christian art.

 

Empress Galla Placidia and the Fall of the Roman Empire

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Galla Placidia died in 450 AD, just before the Western Roman Empire's final collapse. Her life and regency were emblematic of the era's struggles, balancing internal Roman politics and external threats, reflecting the complex dynamics that led to the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Conclusion

Galla Placidia's life intersected with many pivotal events and figures of her time. As empress, regent, and mother of an emperor, she wielded considerable influence during one of the most challenging periods in Roman history. Her legacy, both political and cultural, highlights the significant role she played in the final decades of the Western Roman Empire.

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Roman Dodecahedron

The Roman dodecahedron is a small, hollow object made of bronze or, more rarely, stone, with a geometrical shape that has 12 flat faces. Each face is a pentagon, a five-sided shape. The Roman dodecahedra are also embellished with a series of knobs on each corner point of the pentagons, and the pentagon faces in most cases contain circular holes in them. The size of the Roman dodecahedrons can vary, with heights ranging from about 1.5 to 4.5 inches (4 to 11 centimeters). Their historical and functional significance has been a subject of considerable intrigue and speculation.

Roman Dodecahedron

Image Wikipedia

 

The purpose of the Roman dodecahedron remains a mystery to this day, with numerous theories proposed to explain its function. Some of the more popular theories include that it could have been used as a measuring device on the battlefield, a tool for determining the optimal date for sowing winter grain, a candle holder, a religious artifact, a die for a game, or even as a knitting tool for making gloves. However, there is no definitive evidence to support any of these theories conclusively.

The Roman dodecahedron is an artifact that has sparked much curiosity due to its unique design and the lack of clear historical context. It is a testament to the diversity of objects and the potential range of functions they could have had in the Roman world. The mystery surrounding this artifact continues to intrigue scholars and the public alike, making it a fascinating subject of study and speculation.

 

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How did the Romans protect themselves from the sun?

The ancient Romans used various methods to protect themselves from the sun, including the use of natural materials and specific practices. One of the most common methods was to wear wide-brimmed hats, which provided shade to the face, neck, and shoulders. Additionally, they would often drape themselves in lightweight, light-colored tunics made of linen or wool, which helped reflect the sun's rays and keep the body cool.

In terms of skin protection, it is known that ancient civilizations, including the Romans, had an understanding of the sun's harmful effects on the skin. They would use various natural ingredients to create ointments and oils to protect their skin from the sun. These ingredients included olive oil, beeswax, and various plant extracts known for their soothing and protective properties.

Moreover, the Romans were conscious of the sun's intensity during different times of the day. They would often seek shade during the hottest hours of the day and schedule their outdoor activities for the cooler parts of the day, such as early morning or late afternoon.

 Sol is the personification of the Sun and a god in ancient Roman religion

 Image Wikipedia

 

Lastly, it's worth noting that the Romans were also aware of the importance of hydration in hot weather. They would drink water and other refreshing beverages, such as diluted wine, to keep themselves hydrated and cool.

These practices show that the ancient Romans were quite adept at protecting themselves from the sun, using a combination of clothing, natural products, and smart scheduling to minimize their exposure to harmful UV rays.

 

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